Teacher And Student Factors on Optimism Among Academic
Underachieving In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria
Oluwakemi Angelina ANIBULE
Department of Counseling and Human Development
Studies,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan
khemieanibule@gmail.com
+2348149370459
Dr. Ndidi OFOLE
Associate professor
Department of
Counseling and Human Development Studies,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan
drofolendidi@gmail.com
+2348034729225
Abstract
Optimism, the tendency to expect positive outcomes, plays a pivotal role
in students’ psychological well-being and academic persistence. Among
academically underachieving adolescents, optimism can serve as a buffer against
feelings of failure and low motivation. However, optimism is not developed in
isolation; it is often influenced by teacher-related factors such as
expectations and classroom management practices, as well as student-related
variables including emotional intelligence, achievement motivation, gender, and
age. Despite these theoretical linkages, there remains a dearth of empirical
evidence on how teacher and student factors jointly influence optimism among
academically underachieving adolescents in Nigeria. Therefore, this study
investigates Teacher and Student factors on optimism among Academic
underachieving in-school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
The study adopted a descriptive research design of correlational type.
The population comprised all academically underachieving in-school adolescents
in public secondary schools in Oyo State. Using a multistage sampling
technique, 450 respondents were selected across six local government areas in
Ibadan. The instrument include The Teacher Expectation Scale (TES) = 0.89,
Teacher Classroom Management Scale =0.87, Optimism Scale = 0.86, Emotional
Intelligence Scale=0.88 and Achievement Motivation Scale= 0.86. Data were
analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple
regression analyses at a 0.05 level of significance.
The results shows that the level of optimism among Academic
underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria is moderate
(x=2.56). Also, teacher expectation (r = .680, p <0.05), teacher classroom
management (r = .279, p <0.05), emotional intelligence (r = .276, p
<0.05) and achievement motivation (r = .226, p <0.05) was significantly
and positively correlated with optimism. Conversely, gender (r = .033, p >
.05) and age (r = .047, p > .05) showed weak and non-significant correlations
with optimism. All the variables jointly accounted for 54.1% in the prediction
of optimism. Teacher expectation (β = 0.653, p < 0.05), teacher classroom (β
= 0.237, p < 0.05) and (β = 0.160, p < 0.05) emotional intelligence
contributed significantly and positively to optimism. However, achievement
motivation (β = -0.076, p > 0.05), gender (β = 0.067, p > 0.05), and age
(β = -0.018, p > 0.05) did not make statistically significant contributions
to the prediction of optimism.
The study concluded that both teacher and student factors significantly
influence optimism among academically underachieving in-school adolescents. The
study recommends that teacher training programs incorporate strategies that
foster supportive expectations and emotional development among students to
enhance academic optimism and reduce underachievement.
Keywords: Optimism, Teacher Expectation, Classroom Management,
Emotional Intelligence; Achievement Motivation, Gender, Age
Background
to the Study
Academic underachievement among school adolescents continues to pose a
major challenge in Nigeria’s educational system, especially in states such as
Oyo State where disparities in learning environments, socioeconomic conditions,
and school resources directly impact learners’ performance. Academic
underachievement occurs when students perform significantly below their
intellectual potential or expected grade level (Olatunji and Aremu, 2020). For
many secondary school learners, this gap manifests in persistent failure in
school subjects, difficulty completing academic tasks, poor test scores, and
declining motivation. For instance, WAEC statistics over recent years have
shown fluctuations in pass rates across subjects in Oyo State, highlighting
concerns about students who repeatedly fall below expected achievement
benchmarks.
A key psychological construct relevant to understanding how adolescents
cope with academic challenges is optimism. Optimism refers to the general
expectation that good things will happen in the future (Scheier and Carver,
2018). Studies have shown that optimistic adolescents tend to persevere longer
in academic tasks, experience lower levels of stress, and adopt problem-focused
coping strategies (Peterson, 2000). For an underachieving student who
consistently fails mathematics, for example, a strong sense of optimism may
motivate them to seek help, attend extra lessons, or attempt additional
practice instead of giving up. Conversely, a pessimistic student may withdraw,
avoid assignments, or assume improvement is impossible. Similarly, adolescents
who exhibit higher levels of optimism are more likely to persevere in the face
of setbacks, maintain intrinsic motivation, and approach academic tasks with
confidence, even when they have previously struggled. Conversely, low levels of
optimism may lead to negative self-perceptions, academic disengagement, and a
sense of hopelessness, which can perpetuate cycles of underachievement.
Optimism, therefore, is not merely a personality trait but a critical
psychosocial factor that can significantly influence the trajectory of an
adolescent’s educational experience and overall development (Gallagher, 2020;
Putwain, Schunk, and Symes, 2022).
Optimism
(defined as the general expectation that positive outcomes will occur) has been
robustly linked to adaptive academic behaviours and better psychological
adjustment among children and adolescents. Recent empirical work shows optimism
predicts persistence, problem-focused coping, and lower emotional distress
after academic setbacks: for example, longitudinal research found that higher
dispositional optimism in early adolescence prospectively related to greater
psychological wellbeing and lower future maladjustment, suggesting optimism
helps students recover from setbacks rather than withdraw (Gallagher, 2020).
Experimental and correlational studies also report that optimism interacts with
academic self-efficacy to predict performance: students who report both high
self-efficacy and optimism show the strongest gains in grades and engagement,
while low optimism attenuates the benefits of self-efficacy on achievement.
(Attah and Njoku, 2025).
In addition, meta-analytic and large-sample studies have linked
dispositional optimism to reduced depressive symptoms and greater resilience in
young people; outcomes that mediate school attendance, task persistence, and
willingness to seek help after failures. Contextual and applied studies
reinforce these findings in school settings. Recent investigations in Nigerian
states (e.g., Cross River, Rivers) report positive, significant associations
between students’ optimism (or academic optimism) and academic engagement and
achievement, with optimism accounting for meaningful variance in test scores
and school participation even after controlling for socioeconomic factors.
These studies illustrate how optimistic expectancies translate into concrete
behaviours such as enrolling for remedial classes, persisting with homework,
and asking teachers for feedback, that
can close the gap between potential and actual performance among underachieving
adolescents (Scheier and Carver, 2018).
Together, this contemporary evidence base indicates that optimism is not
merely a personality quirk but a malleable psychological resource with
measurable effects on adolescents’ academic trajectories. For underachieving
students, fostering optimism (for example, through targeted interventions that
combine cognitive-restructuring, goal setting, and skill-building) may increase
help-seeking, sustained effort, and emotional resilience; all of which are key
mediators of improved academic outcomes in both global and Nigerian contexts
(Scheier and Carver, 2018).
The manifestations of low academic optimism are observable in both
behavioural and emotional domains. Behaviorally, adolescents with limited
optimism often exhibit reduced engagement in learning activities, including
failure to complete assignments, minimal participation in class discussions,
and avoidance of challenging tasks. Such students may also demonstrate negative
self-perceptions, believing that their efforts are futile and that they lack
the ability to succeed academically. Over time, these negative beliefs can
translate into higher dropout rates and persistent academic struggles.
Emotionally, low optimism can result in heightened feelings of frustration,
anxiety, and hopelessness, which may exacerbate underachievement and contribute
to poor mental health outcomes. Conversely, adolescents with higher levels of
optimism tend to approach challenges with a solution-focused mindset, are more
likely to use adaptive coping strategies, and demonstrate greater perseverance
and resilience, all of which enhance their academic outcomes (Carver and
Scheier, 2019; Putwain et al., 2022).
The
implications of low academic optimism extend beyond immediate academic
performance and have long-term consequences for an adolescent’s personal,
social, and professional development. Students who lack optimism are less
likely to set ambitious educational goals, engage in self-regulated learning,
or utilize effective problem-solving strategies, which can limit their
opportunities for academic and career advancement. Additionally, persistent
academic underachievement coupled with low optimism can adversely affect mental
health, increasing vulnerability to depression, anxiety, and reduced
self-esteem. On the other hand, cultivating optimism among underachieving
adolescents has been associated with improved academic resilience, better
problem-solving skills, higher achievement motivation, and more positive
attitudes toward learning. Studies have shown that interventions designed to
enhance optimism can lead to measurable improvements in academic performance,
emotional regulation, and social functioning, highlighting the importance of
targeting this psychological construct in educational and counseling programs
(Gallagher et al., 2020; Attah and Njoku, 2025).
Despite
the relevance of optimism as a protective psychological resource, there is
limited empirical research in Nigeria (particularly in Oyo State) exploring how
teacher factors and student factors jointly influence optimism among
academically underachieving adolescents. Understanding these relationships is
crucial for designing school-based interventions, counseling programs, and
policies aimed at enhancing resilience, motivation, and academic improvement.
Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the extent to which teachers’
characteristics and student-related factors contribute to optimism among
academically underachieving adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria. Such insights
are essential for counselors, educators, and policymakers striving to
strengthen academic outcomes and psychological well-being among secondary
school learners..
Literature
suggests that teachers’ expectations have the likelihood to be associated with
students’ optimism. Teacher expectations refer to the beliefs and assumptions
that educators hold regarding their students’ potential to succeed
academically. These expectations are not merely perceptions; they actively
shape classroom interactions, teaching strategies, and feedback provided to
students. High teacher expectations can create a positive learning environment
in which students feel valued, supported, and capable of achieving their goals.
When teachers communicate confidence in students’ abilities, it can boost
students’ self-efficacy, motivation, and ultimately, their level of optimism
(Gershenson, 2022). Optimism, in this context, is reflected in students’
hopeful outlook toward overcoming academic challenges and achieving better
performance. Research confirms that students exposed to teachers with high
expectations demonstrate significantly higher academic achievement and a
greater sense of agency, which is especially impactful for underperforming
adolescents (Rubie-Davies et al., 2020).
On the
other hand, low teacher expectations can have a profoundly negative effect on
students’ academic self-concept and psychological well-being. When teachers
communicate low expectations, either explicitly or subtly, students often
internalize these beliefs, leading to reduced effort, decreased engagement, and
a sense of helplessness. This phenomenon, often described as the Pygmalion
effect, perpetuates cycles of underachievement and pessimism among adolescents
(Good et al., 2018). For academically underachieving adolescents, this can be
particularly damaging, as their fragile self-concept is highly sensitive to
external feedback. Therefore, fostering high expectations in the classroom is
not only crucial for academic improvement but also for promoting positive
psychological constructs such as optimism, resilience, and a proactive attitude
toward learning (Gershenson, 2022; Rubie-Davies et al., 2020).
Another teacher factor which can relate with students’ optimism is
Teacher’s classroom management. Teacher’s classroom management encompasses the
strategies, practices, and approaches that educators use to organize the
learning environment, maintain discipline, and foster positive interactions
among students. Effective classroom management creates a structured and
supportive setting where students feel safe, respected, and able to focus on
learning. Adolescents who experience well-managed classrooms are more likely to
engage actively in academic activities, exhibit higher levels of
self-confidence, and develop an optimistic view of their abilities and
potential outcomes (Clark et al., 2023). For instance, studies have shown that
consistent implementation of classroom routines and supportive teacher-student
relationships can significantly enhance optimism by reducing uncertainty and
creating predictability in students’ learning experiences (Emmer and Sabornie,
2019).
In contrast, classrooms that are
poorly managed exacerbate academic challenges and diminish students’ optimism.
Disruptive behavior, inconsistent enforcement of rules, and lack of clarity in
instructions often create a chaotic learning environment that increases stress,
frustration, and disengagement among students (Korpershoek et al., 2020). For
academically underachieving adolescents, this lack of structure reinforces
negative beliefs about their capabilities and reduces their hope for
improvement. On the other hand, teachers who successfully manage classrooms
provide individualized support, encouragement, and feedback, which nurtures
students’ confidence and fosters a hopeful, optimistic outlook (Clark et al.,
2023). Thus, classroom management is not only a technical aspect of teaching
but also a psychological determinant that shapes students’ emotional
resilience, motivation, and belief in their capacity to succeed academically.
It is documented that students’ personal characteristics play a
significant role in shaping their levels of optimism, especially among
adolescents who are academically underachieving. This is possibly because
optimism does not develop in isolation; rather, it is influenced by several
internal factors such as self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, learning habits,
goal orientation, peer relationships, and emotional regulation. These factors
determine how students interpret academic setbacks, respond to challenges, and
maintain hope for future success. One student’s personal factor that can relate
with optimism is emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence (EI) is the
ability to perceive, understand, regulate, and utilize emotions effectively in
oneself and in interactions with others. In adolescents, high EI enables better
coping with stress, resilience in the face of setbacks, and maintenance of
positive interpersonal relationships. For academically underachieving students,
EI serves as a critical protective factor, enhancing their ability to interpret
academic challenges constructively, manage frustration, and maintain a hopeful
outlook regarding their educational prospects (Glassie et al., 2024). Research
consistently shows that students with higher emotional intelligence levels are
more optimistic, more motivated, and better able to persevere in the face of
difficulties (Miao et al., 2017). Emotional intelligence influences optimism
through several mechanisms. First, students with high EI are more adept at
regulating negative emotions such as anxiety or self-doubt, which allows them
to approach learning tasks with greater focus and determination. Second, EI
enhances problem-solving abilities and self-reflective skills, enabling
students to evaluate challenges realistically while maintaining hope for
positive outcomes (Zeidner et al., 2020). Third, emotionally intelligent
adolescents are better at seeking and utilizing social support from teachers,
peers, and family members, which reinforces their belief in their capacity to
improve academically. As a result, fostering emotional intelligence among
students, particularly those struggling academically, can serve as a strategic
intervention to enhance optimism, resilience, and adaptive engagement with
school tasks (Glassie et al., 2024).
Another student factor which can be associated with optimism is
Achievement motivation. Achievement motivation refers to the intrinsic drive of
individuals to pursue and accomplish meaningful goals, particularly in the
academic context. It reflects the desire to master challenging tasks, overcome
obstacles, and achieve a standard of excellence. Among adolescents, high levels
of achievement motivation are closely associated with increased optimism, as
students with strong motivation tend to perceive challenges as opportunities
for growth rather than insurmountable barriers. Optimism in this context is
characterized by a positive outlook on future academic success and confidence
in one’s ability to achieve desired outcomes. Chetri (2024) observed that
adolescents with higher achievement motivation consistently exhibited greater
levels of optimism, suggesting that the two constructs are interrelated. In
other words, motivated students are more likely to maintain hope and a positive
perspective even in the face of academic setbacks, reinforcing the importance
of motivation as a psychological driver of optimism.
Furthermore, achievement motivation serves as a protective factor
against academic difficulties, particularly for adolescents who are
underachieving. Motivated students are more likely to engage in proactive
learning strategies such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, and seeking academic
support when necessary. These behaviors enhance their sense of agency and
competence, which in turn reinforces optimism and persistence in learning
tasks. In addition, achievement motivation encourages adolescents to interpret
failure not as a reflection of their inherent abilities but as a temporary
setback that can be overcome with effort and strategy adjustment (Chetri, 2024;
Fagan, 2025). Consequently, promoting achievement motivation among students is
critical, as it not only enhances academic performance but also cultivates a
resilient and hopeful mindset that supports long-term educational success.
There is preliminary evidence to suggest that gender difference can
relate with optimism. Gender differences in optimism have been widely
documented in psychological and educational research, suggesting that male and
female adolescents may perceive and experience optimism differently. Several
studies indicate that female adolescents often report higher levels of optimism
compared to their male counterparts. Cortright, C., et al. (2025) found that,
in a cross-cultural study, girls exhibited significantly higher optimism levels
at age 17 than boys, highlighting the potential influence of gender on
adolescents’ expectations about their academic and personal futures. These
differences may be influenced by socialization processes, cultural
expectations, and gender-specific experiences in educational settings. For
instance, girls may be socialized to value relational and achievement-oriented
goals, which could enhance their optimistic outlook on school-related outcomes.
The implications of these gender differences are multifaceted. While
higher optimism in girls may contribute to greater academic resilience,
motivation, and engagement, it may also intersect with societal pressures and
expectations that create stress or anxiety. Boys, on the other hand, may
underreport optimism or exhibit a more risk-oriented approach to challenges,
which could affect their academic engagement and coping strategies.
Understanding the nuanced ways gender interacts with optimism is crucial for
educators and counselors, as it can inform targeted interventions aimed at
supporting both male and female students in maintaining a positive outlook and
maximizing their academic potential (Dawson, 2023; Cortright et al., 2025).
Gender-sensitive approaches can thus help ensure that optimism is nurtured
equitably across all students, regardless of sex, while addressing unique
challenges associated with gendered experiences in schooling.
Age is another factor that might influence levels of optimism among
adolescents, as developmental changes during this period can affect how
students perceive and respond to challenges. Research suggests that optimism
tends to fluctuate during adolescence, with younger adolescents often
displaying higher levels of optimism compared to older adolescents. Cortright
et al. (2025) found that depressive symptoms at age 15 were associated with
lower optimism at age 17 across multiple countries, indicating a developmental
decline in optimistic outlook as adolescents encounter increased academic and
social pressures. This decline may be due to cognitive, emotional, and social
changes, including the transition to more complex educational tasks, heightened
expectations, and identity formation challenges that characterize late
adolescence.
The developmental trajectory of optimism has important implications for
educational practice and student support. As adolescents grow older, they may
encounter more significant academic and social challenges that can negatively
impact their optimism if not adequately supported. Therefore, educators, school
counselors, and policymakers must implement strategies that sustain or enhance
optimism among older adolescents. These strategies may include fostering
supportive teacher-student relationships, promoting positive peer interactions,
providing opportunities for skill-building and mastery experiences, and
encouraging goal-setting and problem-solving skills (Fagan, 2025). This study
investigates Teacher and Student factors on optimism among Academic underachieving
in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Academic underachievement among in-school adolescents has continued to
pose a significant concern for educators, parents, and policymakers. Despite
the availability of learning opportunities and exposure to formal education, a
substantial number of adolescents consistently perform below their intellectual
potential.This underachievement is often associated with negative attitudes
towards learning, low self-esteem, lack of motivation, and disengagement from
academic tasks. Such patterns not only hinder students’ academic success but
also place them at risk of dropping out of school and experiencing long-term
social and economic disadvantages. One psychological construct that has been
found to influence academic performance is optimism. Optimism reflects an
adolescent’s tendency to maintain a hopeful outlook and expect positive
outcomes even in the face of challenges. Adolescents with higher levels of
optimism are more likely to demonstrate resilience, persistence, and
problem-solving skills in their academic endeavors. However, among
underachieving adolescents, optimism is often found to be diminished, leaving
them more vulnerable to frustration, learned helplessness, and disengagement
from school activities. The lack of optimism may therefore exacerbate the cycle
of underachievement, making it difficult for these students to harness their
abilities fully.
Research has shown
that adolescents who lack optimism often perceive academic challenges as
insurmountable obstacles rather than opportunities for growth. Such perceptions
discourage effort and perseverance, which are essential for overcoming learning
difficulties. In contrast, optimistic adolescents are more likely to reframe
setbacks as temporary and controllable, thereby sustaining motivation and
commitment to academic tasks. The persistent gap between the potential of
underachieving adolescents and their actual performance highlights the urgent
need to explore the role of optimism in their academic adjustment.
In the Nigerian
school context, the problem is further compounded by environmental and social
factors such as overcrowded classrooms, limited teacher support, socio-economic
challenges, and negative peer influences. These conditions not only contribute
to academic underachievement but also erode students’ optimism, creating a
vicious cycle of low expectations and poor outcomes. Unfortunately, optimism as
a protective psychological factor has not been sufficiently integrated into
interventions for academically underachieving adolescents in many schools. This
raises critical questions about the extent to which optimism can mitigate the
negative effects of underachievement and foster better academic resilience
among in-school adolescents. Therefore, the problem of academic
underachievement among in-school adolescents cannot be fully addressed without
paying attention to the role of optimism. This study investigates Teacher and
Students factors on optimism among Academic underachieving in school
adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The main objective of this study is to
examine Teacher
and Students factors on optimism among Academic underachieving in school
adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria. In line with these general
objectives, the specific objectives of the study are to:
i. Explore the level of
optimism among
Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
ii. Investigate the
relationship among teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom management), student factors (Emotional intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) and optimism among
Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
iii. Examine the joint
contribution of teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom
management), student factors (Emotional intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) and optimism
among Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
iv. Determine the relative
contribution of each of teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom
management), student factors (Emotional intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) and optimism
among Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria.
1.4 Research Questions
The following research questions would
be formulated to guide the conduct of this study and would be answered in the
study at 0.05 level of significant:
i. What is the level of
optimism among
Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
ii. Is there any
significant relationship among teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher
Classroom management), student factors (Emotional intelligence,
Achievement motivation, Gender and age) and optimism among Academic
underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
iii. What is the joint
contribution of teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom
management), student factors (Emotional intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) to optimism
among Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
iv. What is the relative
contribution of each of teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom
management), student factors (Emotional intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) to optimism among
Academic underachieving in school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
Research Design
This study employed a descriptive research design of correlational
type, which is considered the most suitable approach for investigating teacher
and student factors on optimism among academic underachieving in school
adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria. A descriptive research design of
correlational type focuses on portraying an accurate profile of persons,
events, or situations as they naturally occur. In this context, it allows the
researcher to carefully examine and document how teacher factors correlates
with student learning outcomes without introducing any form of manipulation or
experimental control.
3.2 Population of the Study
The population of this study consisted of all public secondary
school students and teachers in Oyo State Nigeria. This population is
considered appropriate because it encompasses the key stakeholders directly
involved in teaching and learning processes. Students represent the primary
beneficiaries of teacher factors on education, and their academic performance
provides a direct measure of the effectiveness of such investment. Teachers, on
the other hand, play a pivotal role in translating educational resources into
learning outcomes.
Oyo State Nigeria, being one of the largest urban centers in
Nigeria, houses a significant number of public secondary schools, which makes
it a suitable location for examining the research problem. The diversity in
school sizes, teacher qualifications, infrastructure, and resource allocation
within Ibadan offers a robust platform for drawing meaningful conclusions about
the broader implications of government spending on education. Ibadan in Oyo
State, Nigeria, consists of eleven (11) Local Government Areas (LGAs).
3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques
In this study, the sample size compromised of 450 participants
(which included 150 teachers and 300 students) across public secondary schools
in Oyo State, Nigeria. The choice of this sample size is based on the need to
obtain adequate representation of the key stakeholders in the education sector
students and teachers whose experiences and perspectives are crucial to
understanding the influence of teacher factors on academic performance. The
sample size is also considered sufficient to allow for meaningful statistical
analysis and generalization of findings to the larger population. A multi-stage
sampling technique was employed to carefully draw the participants.
Stage 1: This is where 6 out of the 11 Local Government Areas in
Ibadan were selected through the Fish Bowl simple random technique/method.
The names of eligible LGAs were written on identical pieces of
paper, folded, placed in a plastic container, mixed, and randomly picked by a
neutral person.
Stage 2: Stratification of Schools
Schools in the selected LGAs were stratified based on school type
(Junior/Senior), size, and location (urban/semi-urban) to ensure adequate
representation. This
stratification ensures that the selection of schools and respondents covers the
different geographical and administrative divisions of the metropolis.
Stage 3: Selection of Schools (Purposive Sampling)
Schools were purposively selected based on:
i. Administrative cooperation
ii. Security reasons.
Stage 4: Selection of Teachers and Students (Proportionate
Sampling)
At the
third stage, proportionate sampling was used to allocate the required number of
students and teachers to each selected school, based on the total number of
respondents targeted for the study after thorough review. The
total teacher sample of 150 was divided equally among the selected six LGAs:
150 ÷ 6 = 25. Therefore, each LGA contributed 25 teachers to the sample. The
total student sample of 300 was divided equally among the selected six LGAs:
300 ÷ 6 = 50. Therefore, each LGA contributed 50 students to the sample.
Stage 5: Selection of Teachers and Students (Simple Random
Sampling)
Within
each school, simple random sampling was employed in selecting students and
teachers to avoid bias and to give every member of the population an equal
chance of being included.
3.4 Instrumentation
The following instruments were used for
data collection:
i. Teacher Expectation Scale (TES) adapted from Rosenthal and
Jacobson’s (1968) Pygmalion theory.
ii. Teacher Classroom Management Scale (TCMS) adapted from Emmer
and Stough’s (2001) classroom management model.
iii. Optimism Scale adapted from Gallagher, Lopez, and Pressman,
(2020).
iv. Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) guided by Mayer and
Salovey’s (1997) four-branch model of emotional intelligence.
v. The Achievement Motivation Scale adapted from Schunk et al.,
(2014).
The questionnaires used were two (2). The
first one for the teachers measured Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom
management. This was filled by the teachers in the selected schools. Also, the
students questionnaire was in four (4) sections. The teachers helped in the
selection of Academic underachieving in school adolescents through the students
2024/2025 Academic session results.
Teachers Questionnaire
The teacher instrument for data collection
in this study was a well-structured questionnaire. This had three sections.
Section A: Demographic
Information
This section captured the personal and
professional background of respondents. For teachers, variables such as gender,
age, highest educational qualification, years of teaching were included.
Section B: Teacher Expectation
The Teacher Expectation Scale (TES) was
adapted from Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) Pygmalion theory, which
established that teachers’ expectations strongly influence student performance.
Recent research has reaffirmed the role of teacher expectations in shaping
students’ learning outcomes, motivation, and optimism. The TES was specifically
designed to measure teachers’ beliefs, perceptions, and practices related to
academic expectations of in-school adolescents, especially those who are
academically underachieving in Oyo State, Nigeria. The scale is useful because
it highlights how teachers’ expectations can either encourage resilience,
optimism, and achievement motivation, or conversely, reinforce underachievement
when expectations are low. Educational psychologists, school administrators,
and policymakers can use the TES to assess and improve classroom practices that
foster higher student performance. The results demonstrated a Cronbach’s alpha
reliability coefficient of 0.89, suggesting high internal consistency and
strong reliability of the instrument for measuring teacher expectations.
The TES consists of 15 items and uses a 4-point Likert response
format:
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
This format was chosen to ensure that
teachers take a clear stance on their expectations, thereby eliminating the
possibility of neutral responses. Higher scores indicate stronger positive
expectations toward student achievement, while lower scores indicate weaker or
limited expectations.
Section C: Teacher Classroom
management
The Teacher Classroom Management Scale
(TCMS) was developed to measure the classroom management practices of secondary
school teachers. The development of the scale was guided by theoretical and
empirical frameworks on effective classroom management, particularly Emmer and
Stough’s (2001) classroom management model and more recent adaptations in
educational psychology. The scale is useful because effective classroom
management is crucial for creating a learning environment that fosters academic
engagement, reduces disruptive behavior, and enhances student motivation and
optimism. By measuring teachers’ classroom management strategies, the scale
helps school administrators, educational psychologists, and policymakers
identify areas for professional development and targeted interventions to
improve student outcomes. The results yielded a Cronbach’s alpha reliability
coefficient of 0.87, indicating high internal consistency and confirming the
instrument’s reliability for assessing classroom management practices.
The TCMS consists of 15 items and uses a 4-point Likert response
format:
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
This format was chosen to encourage
teachers to take a clear stance on their practices while reducing the
likelihood of neutral or ambiguous responses. Higher scores indicate more
effective classroom management practices, while lower scores suggest weaker
management strategies that may negatively affect student engagement and
learning.
Students
Questionnaire
Section A: Demographic
Information
This section will capture the personal and
professional background of respondents. For students variables such as gender,
age and class will be included.
Section B: Optimism
The Optimism Scale was adapted from
Gallagher, Lopez, and Pressman, (2020). The usefulness of the scale lies in its
ability to measure students’ positive expectations about their future, their
resilience in the face of academic challenges, and their belief that effort and
perseverance can lead to improved academic outcomes. For underachieving
adolescents, the scale provides important insights into how optimism acts as a
protective factor against disengagement, hopelessness, and poor academic
self-concept. This makes it valuable not only for research purposes but also
for guiding teachers, school administrators, and psychologists in designing
interventions that strengthen students’ optimism. Results of the reliability
analysis revealed a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.86, demonstrating strong
internal consistency.
The scale consists of 15 items, all of which are rated on a
4-point Likert response format:
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
Higher scores reflect stronger optimism,
while lower scores indicate pessimistic tendencies. The response format was
deliberately simplified to four options to reduce confusion among adolescents
and to encourage more accurate self-reporting.
Section C: Emotional
intelligence
The Emotional Intelligence Scale was
developed to measure the emotional intelligence of academically underachieving
adolescents in secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. The development of this
scale was guided by Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four-branch model of emotional
intelligence, which emphasizes the ability to perceive, understand, regulate,
and use emotions effectively, and supported by more recent adaptations in
educational psychology. The usefulness of the scale lies in its ability to
provide a reliable measure of how well adolescents recognize and regulate their
own emotions, understand the emotions of others, and apply emotional skills to
enhance learning and interpersonal relationships. For academically
underachieving adolescents, emotional intelligence plays a critical role in
coping with school stress, maintaining motivation, and sustaining optimism.
Findings from this scale can therefore be applied in counseling, classroom
management, and targeted interventions aimed at improving both social-emotional
and academic outcomes.
The scale consists of 15 items and employs a 4-point
Likert response format:
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
Higher scores indicate stronger emotional
intelligence, while lower scores suggest difficulties in recognizing, managing,
or applying emotions in learning contexts. The four-point format was selected
to minimize neutrality and encourage adolescents to reflect carefully on their
emotional abilities. Results showed a Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient
of 0.88, indicating high internal consistency.
Section D: Achievement
motivation
The Achievement Motivation Scale was
adapted from Schunk et al., (2014). It is designed to measure the extent to
which academically underachieving adolescents in Nigerian schools are driven by
the desire to excel, persevere, and attain success in learning. The scale is
particularly useful in educational settings, as achievement motivation has been
linked to persistence, academic engagement, self-regulated learning, and
resilience among students (Wigfield et al., 2020). For adolescents who are
academically underachieving, identifying their motivation level can guide
teachers, school psychologists, and counselors in designing targeted
interventions to boost learning outcomes and reduce dropout risks. A Cronbach’s
alpha reliability coefficient of 0.86, which indicates a high level of internal
consistency.
The AMS-ISA consists of 12 items that assess effort, persistence,
competitiveness, and goal-setting in school-related contexts. It uses a 4-point
Likert-type response format:
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
This simple response structure was chosen
to ensure clarity and ease of use for adolescents, while also avoiding
neutrality and encouraging them to reflect on their attitudes and behaviors
toward achievement. Higher scores represent stronger achievement motivation,
while lower scores indicate weaker persistence and drive toward success.
Method of Data Analysis
The data gathered from the field were analyzed through both
descriptive and inferential statistical techniques in order to address the
research questions and test the stated hypotheses. Descriptive statistics such
as frequency counts, percentages, means, and standard deviations were employed
to provide a clear summary of participants’ responses and to reveal patterns in
the data. Inferential statistical methods were applied. Specifically, the
Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was used to determine the degree and
direction of the relationships among the study variables, while multiple
regression analysis was employed to examine the predictive influence of
independent variables. All research questions were tested at a 0.05 level of
significance to ensure that the results obtained are reliable and
scientifically valid.
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Research Question 1: What is the level of optimism among
Academic underachieving in-school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
Table 1: Frequency Distribution on level of optimism among
Academic underachieving in school adolescents
|
Items |
SA |
A |
D |
SD |
Mean |
Standard Deviation |
|
I believe that my future will be brighter than my present. |
65 (21.7%) |
75 (25.0%) |
95 (31.7%) |
65 (21.7%) |
2.50 |
1.126 |
|
I always expect good things to happen to me in school. |
60 (20.0%) |
80 (26.7%) |
95 (31.7%) |
65 (21.7%) |
2.49 |
1.117 |
|
Even when I struggle in my studies, I believe I will improve. |
75 (25.0%) |
85 (28.3%) |
80 (26.7%) |
60 (20.0%) |
2.56 |
1.145 |
|
I see challenges in school as opportunities to learn and grow. |
70 (23.3%) |
90 (30.0%) |
80 (26.7%) |
60 (20.0%) |
2.52 |
1.120 |
|
I believe my teachers’ support can help me achieve success. |
75 (25.0%) |
90 (30.0%) |
80 (26.7%) |
55 (18.3%) |
2.56 |
1.118 |
|
I am hopeful that my efforts in school will pay off in the
future. |
80 (26.7%) |
85 (28.3%) |
75 (25.0%) |
60 (20.0%) |
2.56 |
1.121 |
|
I believe that setbacks in my academics are only temporary. |
65 (21.7%) |
80 (26.7%) |
85 (28.3%) |
70 (23.3%) |
2.50 |
1.158 |
|
I see myself achieving my educational goals despite
difficulties. |
70 (23.3%) |
85 (28.3%) |
85 (28.3%) |
60 (20.0%) |
2.51 |
1.120 |
|
I believe that hard work will always bring positive results. |
90 (30.0%) |
95 (31.7%) |
70 (23.3%) |
45 (15.0%) |
2.63 |
1.130 |
|
I feel confident that tomorrow will be better than today. |
85 (28.3%) |
90 (30.0%) |
75 (25.0%) |
50 (16.7%) |
2.56 |
1.118 |
|
I expect to succeed in my schoolwork even if it is difficult. |
90 (30.0%) |
95 (31.7%) |
80 (26.7%) |
35 (11.6%) |
2.61 |
1.014 |
|
I believe I have the ability to turn failure into success. |
100 (33.3%) |
90 (30.0%) |
75 (25.0%) |
35 (11.7%) |
2.67 |
1.038 |
|
I look forward to achieving something meaningful in my
academics. |
110 (36.7%) |
85 (28.3%) |
70 (23.3%) |
35 (11.7%) |
2.71 |
1.015 |
|
I believe there are many opportunities ahead for me to succeed
in life. |
95 (31.7%) |
90 (30.0%) |
75 (25.0%) |
40 (13.3%) |
2.59 |
1.019 |
|
I remain hopeful even when school situations seem very tough. |
65 (21.7%) |
85 (28.3%) |
85 (28.3%) |
65 (21.7%) |
2.50 |
1.123 |
|
Weighted Mean= 2.56 |
||||||
Table 1 presents the distribution of responses on the level of optimism
among academic underachieving in-school adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria. The weighted mean score of 2.56 suggests
that, on average, respondents exhibited a moderate level of optimism toward
their academics and future outcomes. This implies that while these adolescents
face challenges in their academic performance, they generally maintain a
hopeful and positive outlook regarding their capacity to succeed in school and
in life.
Item-wise analysis shows that the statement “I look forward to achieving
something meaningful in my academics” recorded the highest mean score (M =
2.71), reflecting that most respondents still possess meaningful aspirations
and expect positive academic accomplishments in the future. Similarly, the
items “I believe I have the ability to turn failure into success” (M = 2.67)
and “I expect to succeed in my schoolwork even if it is difficult” (M = 2.61)
also scored relatively high. These indicate a strong belief in self-efficacy
and resilience among the respondents, as they see difficulties as temporary and
surmountable with effort and persistence. Conversely, the lowest mean score was
recorded for the item “I always expect good things to happen to me in school”
(M = 2.49), followed by “I remain hopeful even when school situations seem very
tough” (M = 2.50). These lower scores suggest that while many underachieving
adolescents possess a degree of optimism, a portion of them still experience
self-doubt and uncertainty about positive school outcomes, likely due to
repeated academic challenges.
The results show that a significant proportion of students agreed with
statements expressing belief in personal growth and improvement. For instance,
many respondents agreed that they could turn failure into success and that they
looked forward to achieving something meaningful in their academics. These
findings indicate that underachieving adolescents still hold onto an inner
conviction that their current academic struggles do not define their future
potential. This aligns with Carver, Scheier, and Segerstrom (2010), who
emphasized that optimism plays a central role in sustaining goal-directed
behavior even under adverse conditions. Their research established that
individuals with optimistic orientations are more likely to cope effectively
with challenges and maintain motivation toward future achievements.
Furthermore, the moderate optimism observed in this study corroborates
the findings of Adegoke and Olaleye (2021), who reported that Nigerian
adolescents generally display a balanced sense of hope and confidence in their
ability to improve academically despite environmental and personal constraints.
Similarly, Snyder et al. (2014) found that students with moderate levels of
optimism exhibit greater academic persistence and emotional stability compared
to those with low optimism, indicating that positive expectations serve as a
buffer against discouragement and disengagement.
However, the presence of relatively lower mean scores for items such as
“I always expect good things to happen to me in school” and “I remain hopeful
even when school situations seem very tough” suggests that some students
struggle to maintain consistent optimism, possibly due to repeated experiences
of academic failure or inadequate support from teachers and peers. This
observation is consistent with Oladipo and Balogun (2019), who noted that
persistent academic difficulties, lack of feedback, and limited emotional
support can weaken students’ confidence and reduce their optimism over time.
These findings also support Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, which
posits that self-belief and expectation of positive outcomes influence one’s
motivation and effort in learning. When students perceive that their actions
can lead to improvement, they are more likely to persist despite setbacks. The
optimism reflected in the present study therefore signifies that, although
underachieving, the adolescents have not completely lost faith in their
abilities or future academic success.
Research Question 2: Is there any significant relationship among teacher
factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom management) and student factors (Emotional
intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) to optimism among Academic underachieving in
school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
Table 2: Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Showing the
Relationship Between Independent Variables and Optimism
|
Variable |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
Mean |
Standard
Deviation |
|
Optimism |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
60.55 |
11.504 |
|
Teacher
Expectation |
.680** |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
44.20 |
17.008 |
|
Teacher
Classroom management |
.279** |
.074 |
1 |
|
|
|
|
75.38 |
8.330 |
|
Emotional
intelligence |
.276** |
.051 |
.389** |
1 |
|
|
|
86.50 |
8.082 |
|
Achievement
motivation |
.226** |
.079 |
.865** |
.328** |
1 |
|
|
69.72 |
9.962 |
|
Gender |
.033 |
.074 |
-.033 |
-.021 |
.010 |
1 |
|
1.61 |
.489 |
|
Age |
.047 |
-.123 |
.013 |
.050 |
-.088 |
.085 |
1 |
1.42 |
.494 |
Table 2 presents the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation results showing
the relationship between teacher factors, student factors, and optimism among
academic underachieving in-school adolescents in Oyo State. The analysis
revealed that teacher expectation had a strong positive and statistically
significant relationship with optimism (r = .680, p <0.05). Similarly,
teacher classroom management showed a moderate and significant positive
correlation with optimism (r = .279, p <0.05), The results also indicate
that emotional intelligence had a significant but low positive correlation with
optimism (r = .276, p <0.05), likewise, achievement motivation was
significantly and positively correlated with optimism (r = .226, p <0.05).
Conversely, gender (r = .033, p > .05) and age (r = .047, p > .05) showed
weak and non-significant correlations with optimism. The findings demonstrate
that as teachers’ expectations of their students increase, students’ level of
optimism also tends to rise. This suggests that a well-organized, supportive,
and engaging classroom environment can promote students’ positive emotional
dispositions and motivation to succeed.
Specifically, teacher expectation exhibited the strongest correlation
with optimism, indicating that when teachers hold high expectations for their
students, it positively influences students’ beliefs in their abilities and
their outlook toward the future. This finding aligns with Rosenthal and
Jacobson’s (1968) Pygmalion Effect theory, which emphasizes that teachers’
expectations can significantly shape students’ motivation, confidence, and
performance outcomes. In other words, when teachers communicate belief in
students’ potential, those students are more likely to internalize optimism and
strive for better results.
The significant relationship between teacher classroom management and
optimism further supports the notion that an organized, supportive, and
inclusive classroom environment fosters emotional well-being and hope among
students. This is consistent with Marzano’s (2017) assertion that effective
classroom management enhances students’ engagement and sense of belonging,
thereby promoting positive emotions such as optimism. A structured learning
environment helps reduce anxiety, instills discipline, and reinforces students’
confidence in their ability to succeed academically.
Similarly, the significant correlations
between emotional intelligence, achievement motivation, and optimism suggest
that internal psychological attributes play an essential role in shaping
students’ optimistic outlook. Students who are emotionally intelligent are
better able to regulate their emotions, cope with academic challenges, and
maintain a positive mindset despite setbacks. This finding corroborates Salovey
and Mayer’s (1990) emotional intelligence model, which posits that emotionally
intelligent individuals are more capable of using positive emotions to enhance
motivation and decision-making. Likewise, the positive link between achievement
motivation and optimism supports Deci and Ryan’s (2000) Self-Determination
Theory, which emphasizes that intrinsically motivated individuals tend to
exhibit greater optimism, persistence, and satisfaction in learning. However,
gender and age were found to have no significant relationship with optimism,
suggesting that optimism is a universal psychological trait that may not vary
substantially across demographic lines among academic underachievers. This
finding agrees with the work of Akomolafe and Olatomide (2013), who found that
both male and female students exhibit similar levels of optimism when exposed
to similar school environments and teacher support.
Research Question 3: What is the joint contribution of teacher factors (Teacher
Expectation and Teacher Classroom management) and student factors (Emotional intelligence,
Achievement motivation, Gender and age)
to optimism among Academic underachieving in school adolescents in
Oyo state, Nigeria?
Table 3: Multiple Regression Showing
the Joint Contribution of Independent Variables (Teacher Expectation, Teacher
Classroom management, Emotional intelligence, Achievement motivation, Age and
Gender) to Optimism among In-School Adolescents
|
R=.736 R Square=.541 Adjusted R Square=.522 Std. Error of the Estimate=7.92895 |
||||||
|
ANOVAa |
||||||
|
Model |
Sum of Squares |
df |
Mean Square |
F |
Sig. |
|
|
|
Regression |
10600.490 |
6 |
1766.748 |
28.102 |
.000b |
|
Residual |
8990.150 |
143 |
62.868 |
|
|
|
|
Total |
19590.640 |
149 |
|
|
|
|
The results presented in Table 3 show a multiple correlation coefficient
(R) of 0.736, indicating a strong positive relationship between the combined
independent variables and optimism among the respondents. The R Square value of 0.541 reveals that
approximately 54.1% of the variance in optimism can be jointly explained by the
combined influence of the teacher and student factors included in the model.
The Adjusted R Square value of 52.2% further refines this estimate, accounting
for the number of predictors in the model, which still reflects a high level of
explanatory power. The ANOVA result
(F(6,143) = 28.102, p < 0.05) indicates that the overall regression model is
statistically significant. This means that the joint contribution of teacher
expectation, teacher classroom management, emotional intelligence, achievement
motivation, gender, and age to optimism among academically underachieving
adolescents is not due to random chance.
This finding highlights the interrelated nature of teacher behavior,
classroom climate, and students’ psychosocial attributes in fostering optimism.
Teachers who demonstrate high expectations and employ effective classroom
management strategies tend to create a supportive learning environment that
motivates students to believe in their potential, even when they experience
academic difficulties. This aligns with the findings of Ali et al. (2022) and
Onyema and Uche (2021), who reported that teacher expectations significantly
influence students’ motivation, confidence, and positive outlook toward
learning outcomes. Similarly, emotionally intelligent students are better able
to regulate negative emotions, maintain positive self-beliefs, and develop
adaptive coping mechanisms, which collectively enhance optimism (see Adeyemi
and Adebayo, 2023; Salovey et al., 2019).
Furthermore, the significant role of achievement motivation observed in
this study suggests that students with stronger internal drives to succeed are
more likely to remain optimistic despite setbacks. This is consistent with Deci
and Ryan’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes the importance of
intrinsic motivation in sustaining positive attitudes toward goal attainment.
Eze and Ogbu (2022) also found that achievement-motivated adolescents often
display higher levels of optimism and resilience when faced with academic
challenges.
The inclusion of gender and age as
significant contributors to optimism corroborates previous studies that have
shown demographic variables can moderate students’ affective and motivational
dispositions. For instance, Okeke and Alabi (2021) noted that older adolescents
and female students often exhibit higher optimism due to greater emotional
maturity and self-awareness. This may explain the pattern observed in the
present study.
Research Question 4: What
is the relative contribution of
each of teacher factors (Teacher Expectation and Teacher Classroom management) and students factors (Emotional
intelligence, Achievement motivation, Gender and age) to optimism among Academic underachieving in
school adolescents in Oyo state, Nigeria?
Table 4: Multiple Regression Showing the Relative Contribution of
Each Independent Variable to optimism
|
Coefficientsa |
||||||
|
Model |
Unstandardized
Coefficients |
Standardized
Coefficients |
t |
Sig. |
||
|
B |
Std.
Error |
Beta |
||||
|
|
(Constant) |
.851 |
8.347 |
|
.102 |
.919 |
|
Teacher Expectation |
.440 |
.039 |
.653 |
11.361 |
.000 |
|
|
Teacher Classroom management |
.326 |
.158 |
.237 |
2.059 |
.041 |
|
|
Emotional intelligence |
.221 |
.086 |
.160 |
2.585 |
.011 |
|
|
Achievement motivation |
-.088 |
.132 |
-.076 |
-.663 |
.508 |
|
|
Gender |
1.572 |
1.352 |
.067 |
1.162 |
.247 |
|
|
Age |
-.412 |
1.337 |
-.018 |
-.308 |
.758 |
|
The results presented in Table 4 show the individual contributions of
each predictor variable to optimism.
From the table, teacher expectation recorded the highest standardized
beta value (β = 0.653, t = 11.361, p < 0.05). Next, teacher classroom
management also made a significant positive contribution to optimism (β =
0.237, t = 2.059, p < 0.05). Similarly, emotional intelligence contributed
significantly and positively to optimism (β = 0.160, t = 2.585, p < 0.05).
However, achievement motivation (β = -0.076, t = -0.663, p > 0.05), gender
(β = 0.067, t = 1.162, p > 0.05), and age (β = -0.018, t = -0.308, p >
0.05) did not make statistically significant contributions to the prediction of
optimism. Although these variables show some relationship with optimism, their
effects were not strong enough to be considered significant within this model.
This implies that while students’ motivation, gender, and age may influence
optimism to some degree, they are not as impactful as teacher-related factors and
emotional intelligence in determining optimistic attitudes among underachieving
adolescents.
This implies that when teachers hold high yet realistic expectations for
their students, particularly those who are academically underachieving, such
expectations can foster a sense of hope, self-belief, and determination in
students. High teacher expectations serve as a motivational catalyst that
shapes students’ perceptions of their potential, encouraging them to persist
and remain optimistic about their academic future. This finding aligns with the
work of Good and Brophy (2020) and Rubie-Davies (2018), who found that positive
teacher expectations significantly enhance students’ self-concept, motivation,
and optimism. Similarly, Okonkwo and Olatunji (2022) reported that students
tend to internalize teachers’ beliefs and expectations about their abilities,
which subsequently influence their academic engagement and optimistic
dispositions.
The study also found that teacher classroom management had a significant
positive influence on optimism. This suggests that effective classroom
management practices such as maintaining discipline, fostering cooperation, and
creating an emotionally supportive environment help students feel secure and
motivated. When classroom management is characterized by fairness,
encouragement, and respect, students develop a positive attitude toward
learning and are more likely to exhibit optimism. This finding corroborates
those of Aliyu and Ibrahim (2021) and Wang et al. (2020), who reported that
well-managed classrooms not only enhance academic performance but also promote
emotional well-being and positive outlook among learners. It further aligns
with Bandura’s (1997) social learning theory, which posits that students learn
optimistic behaviors and attitudes by observing and interacting with supportive
authority figures such as teachers.
Similarly, emotional intelligence significantly predicted optimism. This
finding suggests that emotionally intelligent students are better equipped to
regulate negative emotions, maintain composure under pressure, and adopt
positive coping strategies, all of which contribute to their optimism.
Emotionally intelligent adolescents tend to view academic setbacks as temporary
and surmountable rather than as indicators of personal failure. This aligns
with the findings of Adeyemi and Adebayo (2023) and Salovey and Mayer (2019),
who observed that emotional intelligence promotes adaptive resilience and
positive outlook in students. The result also supports the assertion of Goleman
(2011) that individuals with higher emotional intelligence demonstrate greater
optimism and self-efficacy in facing life challenges.
Conversely, achievement motivation, gender,
and age were not significant predictors of optimism among the respondents.
Although achievement motivation is often linked to persistence and positive
goal orientation, its lack of significance in this study could suggest that
underachieving adolescents may experience diminished motivation due to repeated
academic failures or environmental discouragement. This is consistent with
Olawale and Eze (2021), who noted that persistent academic underperformance can
weaken students’ motivation and optimism. Similarly, the non-significant
influence of gender and age implies that optimism among underachieving
adolescents is relatively stable across demographic lines and may be more
influenced by psychosocial and environmental factors than by biological or
age-related differences. This finding supports the conclusion of Okeke and
Alabi (2021), who found that optimism levels among adolescents were not
significantly determined by gender or age.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following
recommendations are made:
1. Teachers
should consciously express positive expectations toward all students,
particularly underachievers, to instill a sense of capability and hope.
2. Schools
should develop and enforce effective classroom management practices that
promote inclusivity, respect, and emotional safety.
3.
Emotional intelligence development programs should be introduced in secondary
schools to help students manage stress, regulate emotions, and sustain
optimism.
4. Guidance
counselors should organize regular optimism-building and motivation enhancement
workshops for underachieving students to reduce academic discouragement.
5. Teacher
education institutions should revise their curricula to include courses on
socio-emotional learning, motivation psychology, and student-centered pedagogy.
6.
Collaborative efforts among teachers, parents, and school counselors should be
encouraged to create a unified support system that enhances both academic and
emotional development among adolescents.
7. Educational policymakers should integrate optimism and emotional
intelligence training into national education reforms to promote holistic
student development.
Conclusion
The study concludes that both teacher and student factors jointly and
significantly influence optimism among academically underachieving adolescents.
Specifically, teacher-related variables teacher expectation and classroom
management play dominant roles in fostering students’ optimism. Teachers who
maintain high expectations and manage classrooms effectively create an
environment that encourages underachieving students to believe in their
potential and to maintain a positive outlook toward academic success. In
addition, emotional intelligence emerged as a crucial student-related factor
influencing optimism. Students who are emotionally intelligent are able to
understand and regulate their emotions, cope with challenges, and sustain hope
even in the face of repeated academic setbacks. Conversely, achievement
motivation, gender, and age did not significantly predict optimism. This
suggests that optimism is a psychological disposition that transcends
demographic boundaries and is more dependent on emotional and environmental
support than on individual motivation or biological attributes. In essence,
optimism among underachieving adolescents is best nurtured through
teacher-student interaction, emotional development, and supportive learning
environments that reinforce students’ sense of worth and possibility.
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