Harnessing
Palm Biomass Wastes for Sustainable Electricity Generation
Joy
O. Obielumani (Ph.D)
Department
of Chemistry Education, Federal College of Education (Tech), Asaba
Email:
obielumanijoy@yahoo.com
Ifeanyichukwu
I. Onyeukwu
Department
of Integrated Science Education, Federal College of Education (Tech), Asaba
&
Sylvester
C. Okotume
Department
of Chemistry Education, Federal College of Education (Tech), Asaba
Abstract
Palm
oil biomass may serve as potential green energy source sustainability in
Nigeria. This research work evaluated the efficacy of palm oil biomass waste as
an alternative renewable. The study
became of paramount importance due to the recognition of the huge tonnes of
palm oil biomass wastes generated per season from palm oil processing mills
within Delta state metropolis in the form of Empty palm fruit Bunches (EPFB);
Palm Mesocarp Fiber (PMF); Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) and Palm Fruit Chaff (PFC)
large quantities of lignocellulosic residues littered around oil mill premises.
Raw materials were collected from CHEFARD Ventures limited Palm oil mill site,
Obiaruku, Delta State, and used to evaluate the potentials of the biomass
wastes to generate electricity. PRESCO steam turbine size of 1.2 MW and 30
MT/hr boiler capacity of 85% efficiency were employed for this
purpose. Proximate analysis result ranged between 12.50-65.0 (moisture
content); 35.50-72.73 (Fiber content); 9.00-12.22 (ash content) and 62.00-84.20
(volatility) for EPFB, PMF, PKS and PFC respectively. In a blend ratio of
30:20:40:10, a percentage reduction of 63.4%, 18.87% 11.00% was observed in the
moisture content, volatility and fiber content of the PBWs. There was increase
in ash from ~39% to ~42.5% which is likely due to concentration effect as moisture and some volatiles were removed which made the inorganic
fraction became proportionally larger. Pelletization of the PBWs
pellets resulted in uniform cylindrical pellets (8.5 mm diameter), which
improved handling, reduced dust, and allowed for standardized feeding into the
automated combustion chamber. An increase in calorific value from 4,150 - 4,500
kcal/kg for the PBWs pellets is expected due to moisture reduction thus, making
the fuel more attractive and viable. Consequently, the relationship between fuel mass and power output
appears approximately proportional for the three energy sources viz CH4
gas, Raw PBWs and PBWs pellets. As
fuel mass increased to 855 kg/Hr,
power output of the fuel types also increased viz: 4742.6
MW (for CH4), 2455 MW (for PBWs pellets) and 1960.06 MW (for raw
PBWs). This trend confirms that methane gas has a higher
energy conversion capability and calorific value than palm biomass wastes. The comparatively lower power output from
raw PBWs may be attributed to factors such as: lower calorific value of biomass
materials; moisture content in palm biomass residues; incomplete combustion and
lower thermal efficiency during energy conversion. Despite
the lower power output, PBWs remain an important renewable energy resource
because they are environmentally friendly, readily available in palm-producing
regions, and help reduce agricultural waste disposal problems. Based on the expected findings, recommendation was
made.
Key words: Biomass
Wastes, lignocellulosic, Mesocarp, Pelletization
1.0.Introduction
Palm oil biomass emerges
as a potential major contribution to renewable energy as concerned stakeholders
has now diverted from the traditional use of fossil fuel, oil and gas in
elevating renewable energy sources in order to harness energy security. Combustion
of fossil fuels as sources of energy for heat, transportation and electricity
has been known to promote global warming and as such, the entire populace is
digressing from the conventional non renewable energy sources to renewable
sources so as to promote eco-friendly environment in the nearest future for
electricity generation.
Most industrially
advanced countries such as Indonasia and Malaysia generate electric power from
the waste biomass of the empty palm bunches and obtain other products from
them. Interestingly, the Malaysian renewable energy sources is that the palm
oil mill is self sufficient in energy as it uses the mesocarp fiber, empty palm
oil fruit bunches and palm kernel shells as fuel to generate steam in waste
fuel boilers for processing and electricity output using a steam turbine
(Abdullah & Sulaiman, 2013). The high calorific value and fibrous
composition of these palm biomass wastes make them attractive feedstocks for
electricity generation through direct combustion, gasification, or co-firing
with coal. Recent advances have focused on improving conversion efficiency and
reducing emissions. Sulaiman et al., (2022) demonstrated that torrefied EFB
pellets achieve a net calorific value of 21.5 MJ kg-1 and can
replace up to 30% of coal in existing power plants without major retrofitting.
Similarly, Hassan et al., (2023)
reported that fluidized bed gasification of PKS yields a syngas with H₂/CO ratio of 1.8,
suitable for internal combustion engine generators. Meanwhile, Ooi et al., (2021) evaluated the life-cycle
greenhouse gas emissions of palm biomass power plants in Malaysia and found a
net reduction of 0.85 t CO₂‑eq
per MWh compared to grid electricity. These studies underscore the technical
and environmental viability of harnessing palm biomass wastes for sustainable
electricity generation.
Harnessing the energy
potential of palm oil biomass waste by converting Palm Oil Biomass Wastes
(PBWs) to Electric Energy, we can reduce waste disposal issues and
environmental impacts; contribute to the growth of renewable energy sources and
support the development of sustainable and eco-friendly energy solutions
This
research therefore, focuses on exploring the potential of converting palm oil
biomass waste into electric energy through the direct combustion
of the oil palm biomass wastes in a combustor or furnace where it is burned in
excess air to heat water in a boiler to create steam. The steam from the boiler
is then expanded through a steam turbine, which spins a generator to produce
electricity.
2.1
Biomass Wastes from Palm Oil Mills
Palm biomass wastes
obtained from a typical palm oil plantation are about 30% of the
fresh fruit bunches while 70% are turned
into biomass wastes (Salleh et al., 2021) and disposal of large
quantities of these wastes become a challenging task. These byproducts
which include Empty palm Fruit Bunch (EPFB), Palm Mesocarp Fiber (PMF), Palm
Kernel Shell (PKS) and Palm Fruit Chaff (PFC), can be utilized to generate
steam for processing and producing electricity. An initial pretreatment process
is necessary for the efficient utilization of palm oil waste due to its
characteristics, such as a drying procedure to lessen moisture content and a
shredding machine to decrease the size of wastes (Shuit et al., 2009).
Additionally, the oil palm tree is recognized as a carbon-neutral entity
because the carbon released during combustion or decomposition is equivalent to
the amount it has absorbed [Awalludin, 2015; Tumuluru, 2012]. Therefore, it is
noteworthy that this biomass is a sustainable source of raw materials and
energy. Palm oil has also been in the spotlight as an alternative bioenergy
source to solve fossil fuel problems. In addition, it has been proven to be a
potential alternative to reduce the negative environmental impact of global
warming due to its environmentally friendly nature (Mahlia et al., 2019). As a
result of the implementation of renewable energy and energy efficiency
technologies, it has been discovered that these alternative scenarios offer
sufficient electrical power to the sectors involved (i.e., residential,
industrial, and commercial sectors).
2.1.1 Empty Palm Fruit bunches
A palm oil plantation yields huge amount of
biomass waste in the form of empty palm fruit bunches (EPFB). It is a resource
which has huge potential to be used for power generation, though not being
utilized fully. There is a large potential of transforming EPFB into renewable
energy resource that could meet the existing energy demand of palm oil mills or
other industries. Pre-treatment steps such as shredding/chipping, (screw
pressing or drying) are necessary in other to improve the fuel property of this
resource. Pre-processing of EPFB will greatly improve its handling properties
to reduce the transportation costs to the end user i.e. power plants.
2.1.2 Palm Mesocarp Fiber
Palm mesocarp fiber is the fibrous
residue left after palm oil extraction from the fruit. It’s high in volatile
matter and low in ash, making it a good biomass fuel. It has a high moisture
content ranging between 30–60% and can
be combust in boilers to produce steam for turbines obtaining a high Calorific
value ranging 15–19 MJ/kg and percentage
ash content within 3–6. Izah & Ojesanmi (2017) highlight technical gaps and
low efficiency but noted that 40 % of projected values are attainable with
proper measures. Ohimain & Izah
(2015) discussed material‑mass balance of smallholder palm
processing, emphasizing efficient collection systems to make PMF viable for
power plants. Bazmi et al. (2011) reviewed progress and challenges in Malaysia,
noting PMF’s suitability for decentralized power but pointing out issues like
high moisture and ash fouling.
2.1.3. Palm kernel shells
Palm kernel shells are the shell fractions
left after the nut has been removed after crushing in the palm oil mill. Kernel
shells are a fibrous material and can be easily handled in bulk directly from
the product line to the end use. Large and small shell fractions are mixed with
dust-like fractions and small fibers. Moisture content in kernel shell is low
compared to other biomass residues with different sources suggesting values
between 11% and 13%. Palm kernel shells contain residues of palm oil, which
accounts for its slightly higher heating value than average lignocelluloses
biomass. Compared to other celluloses from the industries, it is a good quality
biomass fuel with uniform size distribution, easy handling, easy crushing and
limited biological activities due to low moisture content. Press fiber and
shell generated by the palm oil mills are traditionally used as solid fuels for
steam boilers. The steam generated is used to run turbines for electricity
production. These two solid fuels alone are able to generate more than enough
energy to meet the energy demands of palm oil mills (Zarfar, 2015). Energy
potential of palm kernels shells Nigeria generates large quantity of biomass
waste whose disposal is challenging task. Palm kernel shells contain residues
of palm oil, which account for its slightly higher heating value than the
average lignocelluloses biomass. Compare to other residues from the industry,
it is a good quality biomass fuel with uniform size distribution, easy
handling, easy crushing, and limited biological activity due to low moisture
content. PKS can be readily co-fired with coal in great fire and fluidized bed
boilers as well as cement kilns In order to diversify the fuel mix. The primary
use of palm kernel shells is as a boiler fuel supplements the fiber which is
used as primary fuel. In recent year’s kernel shell are sold as alternative
fuel around the world. Besides selling shell in bulk, there are company that
produce fuel briquettes from shells which may include partial carbonization of
the material to improve combustion characteristics. As a raw material for fuel
briquettes, palm kernel shell is reported to have the same calorific
characteristics as coconut shells. The relative smaller size makes it easier to
carbonize for mass production, and its resulting palm shell charcoal can be
pressed into a heat efficient biomass briquette. Palm kernel shell has been
traditionally used as solid fuels for steam boilers in palm oil mills in
Nigeria. The steam generated is used to run turbines for electricity
production. These two solid fuels are able to generate more than enough energy
to meet the energy demands of a palm oil mill. Most palm oil mill in the region
is self-sufficient in terms of energy by making use of kernel shells and
mesocarp fiber in cogeneration. Nowadays, cement industries and power producers
are increasingly using palm kernels shell to place coal.
2.1.4 Palm fruit
Chaff
Palm
fruit chaff (chaff) is the dry, scaly residue left after threshing palm fruits.
It’s one of the under‑utilized solid wastes
from palm‑oil processing, and studies show it can be
tapped for electricity. Izah & Ojesanmi (2017) estimated bio‑electricity
potential from chaff, empty fruit bunches, palm press fibre, and shell in
Nigeria. They projected 3.2–5.2 MWh in 2004, rising to 4.2–6.8 MWh by 2029
under different growth scenarios. They highlighted challenges like tech gaps,
policy hurdles, and low efficiency but noted that 40 % of projected values are
attainable if barriers are addressed. Bazmi et al. (2011) reviewed progress and
barriers for decentralized biomass electricity in Malaysia, noting that chaff
and other palm residues are abundant but under‑used
due to high moisture and ash content. Ohimain & Izah (2015) discussed
material‑mass
balance of smallholder palm processing and emphasized the need for efficient
collection systems to make chaff viable for power plants.
2.2 Palm
oil Biomass waste Pelletization
Recycling palm biomass waste
through pelletization is a viable approach to improve its physical
characteristics for enhanced applications. Pelletizing a single palm biomass
waste or its blend creates a densified, transportable fuel that can be burned
directly in boilers, co-fired or gasified for electricity generation. The
process improves the material’s energy density, reduces moisture and lowers
handling costs, making it viable for decentralized plants especially in major
palm-producing regions including Nigeria. The preparation of palm biomass
wastes as a substrate for pellet manufacturing consists of five stages:
shredding with a press, sieving, secondary shredding, drying, and grinding,
which can efficiently decrease both size and moisture content, as illustrated
in Figure 3 (Bakar et al., 2015). To utilize various potentials of agricultural
residues, Munawar & Subiyanto, 2014 characterized different palm residues
using conventional pelletizer in varying temperatures and found the water
content, ash content, density and calorific value to be 1.7-1.9%, 6.85-7.54%,
and 3,814-4,722kcal/kg respectively.
2.3
Principles of
Electricity Generation from Biomass wastes
Biopower
plants use direct-fired combustion systems. Biomass is burnt directly to
produce high-pressure steam that drives a turbine generator to produce
electricity.
A
simple biomass electric combustion system is made up a steam cycle composing of several key
components such as combustor/furnace; boiler; pumps; steam turbine; generator;
condenser; cooling power; exhaust; system controls.
Direct
combustion systems feed the oil palm biomass wastes into a combustor or furnace
where it is burned in excess air to heat water in a boiler to create steam. The
steam from the boiler is then expanded through a steam turbine, which spins a
generator to produce electricity.
2.3.1 Steam
Turbine Design Concepts
In
the design of a steam micro-turbine, there are major parameters to be
considered. The input parameters included the superheated steam temperature,
pressure, mass flow rate and other specific properties. The required output to
achieve necessary power supply required are the angular velocity, speed, and
torque. Others include the type of cycle for effective conversion, the
classification of the steam turbine, the blade profile design and arrangement,
the number of stages required for effective steam pressure utilization, nozzle
and condenser design. The turbine design process has a series of steps as
enumerated in Figure 1
Turbine specifications; these include
the rotational speed or speed range, steam pressures at the turbine’s inlet and
exhaust, steam temperature at the turbine inlet, and the desired power output.
Determination of staging based on the turbine specifications; the turbine
designer makes some basic decisions on which the flow path design is built,
such as degree of reaction, desired blade peripheral speed, stage diameters,
and number of stages in the turbine. At this stage, the number of rows of
stationary and moving blades is established. Determination of optimum flow
passage angles by creating velocity diagrams for each stage based on the mean
diameter of the flow path to determine appropriate airfoil entrance and exit
angles, for best performance at the design. Detailed
stage design determines the quantity and the size (that is the width or chord)
of the blades (short constant section airfoils or a series of radial stations
for tall blades with twisted airfoil shapes). Reliability evaluation ensures
that steady steam bending and centrifugal forces are within acceptable limits.
The vibratory characteristics of the blades are predicted and compared with the
frequency and shape of unsteady forces from a variety of sources that acted on
the blades.
Steam turbine depends completely upon the dynamic action
of the steam. Working principle of the power in
a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of
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Change
in momentum of a high velocity jet of steam and hit on a curved blade, which is
free to rotate based on the Newton’s second law’s rate of change of momentum.
The blades are attached to the rotor shaft. The resultant of blade forces is
converted into shaft power to drive the load. The loading on a rotating turbine
blade is composed of centrifugal force due to rotation, bending force due to
the fluid pressure and change of momentum. The design specifications was
obtained by taking cognizance of the designed steam boiler where palm kernel
shell was used as heat energy source [Oladosu et al., 2016: Oladosu et al.,
2017: Kareem et al., 2018: Aina
& Buliaminu, 2022]. The specifications can
sustain a multistage impulse flow steam micro turbine of power 5.5 kW, steam mass
flow rate 0.0275 kg/s, expected efficiency of 75%, inlet temperature 400˚C and
speed (greater than 1500 rpm).
2.3.2
Influence of Chemical Composition on Calorific value of Palm Biomass Wastes
(PBWs)
One of the most important properties determining the
suitability of biomass for energy generation is the calorific value, also known
as heating value. The calorific value represents the amount of heat released
during complete combustion of a material. Studies have shown that the calorific
value of palm biomass wastes is strongly influenced by their chemical
composition, including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, extractives, moisture
content, ash content, fixed carbon, and volatile matter. Chemical composition
of palm biomass wastes are primarily lignocellulosic materials composed of: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, extractives,
ash-forming minerals and moisture content. The relative proportion of these
constituents varies depending on the type of palm residue, age of the biomass,
processing method, and environmental conditions. According to Kuswa et al., (2023), palm biomass materials
exhibit varying combustion properties due to differences in their chemical and
mineral compositions. Their study demonstrated that oil palm wastes with higher
carbon and lignin contents generally possess superior heating values compared
to materials with high ash or moisture contents. Similarly, Parthasarathy et al., (2022) reported that the energy performance of oil palm
wastes during pyrolysis is significantly dependent on elemental carbon
composition and volatile matter concentration. Biomass with increased fixed
carbon content generated higher thermal efficiency and improved fuel
characteristics.
Recent investigations have focused on understanding
how these chemical constituents affect combustion efficiency and energy output
in palm biomass wastes for electricity generation and biofuel production.
2.3.2.1
Influence of Cellulose on Calorific Value
Cellulose is a major structural carbohydrate in palm
biomass wastes. It contributes substantially to combustible volatile compounds
during thermal decomposition. However, cellulose generally possesses a lower
calorific value compared to lignin because of its relatively lower carbon
content and higher oxygen concentration. During combustion, cellulose
decomposes rapidly and produces volatile gases that support ignition.
A study carried out by Waqas et al., (2023) on biomass calorific prediction revealed that
biomass materials rich in cellulose exhibit moderate heating values because
cellulose contains less aromatic carbon structures than lignin. Palm empty
fruit bunches (EFB), which contain relatively high cellulose levels, usually
display lower heating values than palm kernel shells. This difference is
attributed to the lower fixed carbon and higher ash contents in EFB.
2.3.2.2
Influence of Hemicellulose on Calorific Value
Hemicellulose is another polysaccharide component
present in palm biomass wastes. It decomposes at lower temperatures than
cellulose and lignin and contributes to volatile matter formation during
combustion. Although hemicellulose supports ignition and rapid combustion, its
direct contribution to calorific value is relatively low because of its lower
carbon density and thermal stability. Studies indicate that palm fronds and
leaves with elevated hemicellulose contents tend to exhibit lower heating values
than denser biomass materials like palm kernel shell. Kuswa et al., (2023) observed that palm leaves
showed lower combustion efficiency due to higher volatile degradation
associated with hemicellulose decomposition.
2.3.2.3
Influence of Lignin on Calorific Value
Lignin is widely recognized as the most influential
chemical constituent affecting biomass calorific value. It possesses a highly
aromatic structure rich in carbon and hydrogen, making it more energy-dense
than cellulose and hemicellulose. Biomass materials with high lignin content
generally produce higher heating values and longer combustion duration. Palm
kernel shells are particularly rich in lignin and therefore exhibit superior
calorific values compared to other palm residues. Salaudeen et al., (2024) reported calorific values
of approximately 24.04 MJ/kg for raw palm kernel shell and 27.35 MJ/kg for
briquetted palm kernel shell, attributing the high energy output to elevated
lignin and fixed carbon contents. Furthermore, Ioelovich (2019) explained that
lignin significantly increases biomass heating values because aromatic
molecular structures release more thermal energy during combustion. The
relationship between lignin content and calorific value has therefore become a
major consideration in biomass fuel selection and briquette production.
2.3.2.4
Influence of Moisture Content on Calorific Value
Moisture content is one of the most critical factors
negatively affecting biomass calorific value. High moisture levels reduce
effective combustion because part of the released heat is consumed in
evaporating water rather than generating usable energy. Palm biomass wastes
such as fresh EFB and palm fronds often possess high moisture contents, which
lower their combustion efficiency. Gunadi and Dahlan (2024) found that reducing
moisture content in palm waste-derived RDF significantly improved fuel quality
and calorific performance. Their study reported an average calorific value of
4,216.75 cal/g after controlled drying and processing. Similarly, Waqas et al., (2023) emphasized that moisture
reduction enhances combustion stability and increases the net heating value of
biomass fuels.
2.3.2.5
Influence of Ash Content on Calorific Value
Ash content refers to the inorganic mineral residue
remaining after combustion. Biomass materials with high ash content usually
exhibit lower calorific values because ash does not contribute to energy
release. Excessive ash also causes operational problems such as slagging,
fouling, and reduced combustion efficiency in boilers and turbines. Kuswa et al., (2023) demonstrated that palm
biomass residues with elevated silica and alkali metal contents produced
greater ash deposition tendencies and lower thermal performance. Empty fruit
bunches generally contain higher ash levels than palm kernel shells, explaining
their comparatively lower heating values.
2.3.2.6
Influence of Fixed Carbon and Volatile Matter
Fixed carbon represents the solid combustible residue
remaining after volatile matter release, while volatile matter consists of
gases evolved during heating. Biomass fuels with high fixed carbon content
typically possess higher calorific values because fixed carbon sustains
long-duration combustion and heat generation. According to Waqas et al., (2023), biomass wastes with
fixed carbon levels between 50.64% and 54.26% showed improved heating
performance and combustion efficiency.
Palm kernel shell has consistently demonstrated superior fixed carbon
content among palm residues, making it highly suitable for electricity
generation and industrial heating applications.
2.3.2.7
Influence of Extractives on Calorific Value
Extractives are non-structural organic compounds such
as oils, waxes, fats, tannins, and resins present in biomass materials. These
compounds can substantially increase heating values due to their high
hydrocarbon composition. Mauladdini et
al., (2022) reported that biomass extractives positively influence
calorific value because they contain energy-rich organic compounds that combust
efficiently. Palm mesocarp fiber often contains residual palm oil extractives,
which contribute to its relatively high heating value compared to other
agricultural residues.
3.0 Materials
and Method
3.1 Description of Study Area
Obiaruku
is an Ukwuani town in Delta State, Nigeria. It was founded by the people of
Eziokpor and Umuebu origin in Delta State. Obiaruku is the headquarter of
Ukwuani local government area of Delta State. The inhabitants of Obiaruku are
predominantly farmers with traditional religious background. The town has a
latitude of 5.84140N and longitude of 6.153880North
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3.3 Collection of Raw materials
The fresh fruit bunches was obtained from the
Oil palm Plantation of CHEDARD Ventures of about 25 hecters holding 2500 palm
trees, located within Obiaruku in Ukwuani local government area of Delta State.
About hundred and ten tonnes (110 tonnes) of Fresh Fruit Bunches was used in
this research study. The harvested fresh fruit bunches was transported to
CHEDARD Ventures Palm oil processing Plant, located at Mobutu street, Ghana
quarters,
Obiaruku. This was crushed and the palm fruit
chaff (PFC) and Empty palm fruit bunches (EPFB) were obtained. The palm fruits
were cooked and digested and the oil expressed using a compressor. It was then
selected to separate the palm oil kernel (POK) from the palm fruit Mesocarp
fiber (PMF) after which the kernels were cracked to get the palm kernel shell
(PKS). These processes were carried out in order to get the desired raw
materials which were used for this research. Figure 3a, 3b 3c and 3d depicts
the palm plantation, Empty palm fruit bunches, Palm kernel shells and Palm
mesocarp fiber and palm fruit chaff respectively.
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Fig
3a –f: Palm oil plantation and Palm Biomass Wastes (PBWs) obtained
Figure 3a 3b, 3c
and 3d are the main raw materials obtained from the palm plantation (3f) for
this research study.
The EPFB, PMF, PKS
and PFC that was generated were used as a solid fuel for the steam boiler after
laboratory characterization of their constituents and pelletizing.
3.3.1
Pretreatment of Palm oil Biomass Wastes
Pretreatment of palm oil Biomass wastes is
very important in order to increase its digestibility and its degree of
conversion. The method of pretreatment that was used in this research is the
chemical pretreatment, which are dilute acid hydrolysis and alkaline
pretreatment. Aqueous ammonia (NH4) and solvent (H2O2)
were used to increase the digestibility of the PBWs. Fast pyrolysis of alkaline
(NaOH), Ca OH)2 and addition with H2O2 were
also used as had been employed by other researchers Umikalsom et al., (1998) autoclaved Empty Palm fruit Bunches in the presence of
2% NaOH and 85% hydrolysis yield was obtained. The effectiveness of alkali
pretreatment might be attributed to its capability in lignin degradation.
Mission, et al., (2009) investigated the alkali treatment
followed H2O2 treatment and found that almost 100% lignin
degradation was obtained when Empty Palm fruit Bunches was firstly treated with
dilute NaOH and subsequently with H2O2. This confirmed
the lignin degradation by NaOH and its enhancement by the addition H2O2
3.3.2
Pulverization and pelletizing of Palm Biomass Wastes
This process was carried out in
order to convert the palm biomass wastes into more manageable and densified
forms for easier handling, transportation and optimum energy output.
Proportionate mixture in ratio of
1:1.5:2:2 of PFC, PKS, PMF and PFEB respectively of palm biomass wastes was put in a Rotatory Drum
Granulator (RDG) holding capacity of 1-4T/H with a granular diameter of 7mm,
25mm length, and uniformity was achieved on a locally fabricated machine.
A
production trial of palm oil biomass waste pellets were carried out by using
zero gram of biochar- a
solid carbon-rich material that can be used as an adhesive for energy
production. 500g of biochar was then added to the wastes
to ensure that the calorific value of the pellets was enhanced at the end of
the experiment. The temperature applied for the process was about 40 - 55OC,
without any specific pressure used. The
heat in the steam boiler was used to run the steam turbine for generating the
electricity.
3.3.3 Electricity Generation from the Palm
Biomass Wastes
PRESCO, Nig Ltd
palm oil mill plant was employed for the purpose of electricity generation. Its
steam turbine has a capacity of holding above 1000 tonnes of biomass wastes or
their corresponding pellets per hour. Biomass waste pellets were fed into the large
boiler, where the pellets were burned in a furnace and the heat from the
combustion was used to heat the water, thereby turning it into a high pressure
and high temperature steam. The force of the steam was directed at the turbine
causing it to spin a rotor shaft. The spinning rotor shaft of the turbine was
connected to generator which then converted the mechanical energy of the
rotation into electrical energy. The energy output was then recorded.
3.3.4
Energy Conversion Process of Pellets
The conversion process consists of three phases; it
extracts thermal energy (heat) from biomass waste pellets derived from palm oil
in the combustion chamber, using a steam boiler to produce steam, which
transforms the generated heat energy into kinetic energy in the steam turbine,
and lastly, employing a rotary generator to change the mechanical energy from
the turbine into electrical energy. To accomplish this effectively, the
moisture content of the fuel was completely minimized to enhance the quality of
heat required to operate the steam turbine.
Thermal Energy (Q) Mechanical Energy (ME) Electrical Energy(kWh)
Steam
Boiler
Steam Turbine Electrical
Generator
Combustion Efficiency (η) is given by:
η = QCH / QT
Where
QCH is the chemical heat release rate
and QT is the heat of perfect combustion.
3.3.5 Densification of Biopellets
The process of densifying
biomass into compact cylinders enables the formation of biopellets. Each
biopellet has a diameter of 16 mm and varies in length between 18 and 32 mm. A
hydraulic pellet press was utilized to convert biomass powder, screened to 40
mesh and 60 mesh, into biopellets at a temperature of 200°C and a pressure of
1800 mmHg for a duration of 5 minutes. The characteristics of the biopellets
were then assessed.
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Shred
PBWs into Treat
PBWs to
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Fiber Status
Achieve
desired specifications
Crush PBWs into Small pieces
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Pack the PBWs Cool the
PBWs
Make PBWs
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Pellets
Pellets
Pellets
Fig
4: Flow diagram for Palm Biomass Wastes Pelletization
Equipment
and Tools Design
The boiler that was used for this study is located at PRESCO Nig Ltd, Ikpoba-Okha Local
Government Area, Edo
State, Nigeria. It has a capacity of 10 bars and was used in burning 750kg of
the Empty Palm Fruit Bunches, 600kg of the palm kernel shells and 880kg of the
palm oil mesocarp fiber per hour and is required to generate about 1.5 MW of
electricity. The heat and calorific
value was measured and recorded.
Energy generation process has various stages which involves the
extraction of thermal energy (heat) from the fuel (Palm oil biomass wastes) in
the combustion chamber via the steam boiler to raise the steam, converting it
to heat energy generated into kinetic energy in the steam turbine system and
finally using a rotator generator to convert the turbine mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
The three stages of conversion are depicted in Fig. 4 and are expressed
as:
Heat Energy (Steam boiler)
Mechanical Energy
Electrical Energy (generator)
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Turbine
Design Calculation
Turbine
Design Calculation
Based on the design specifications, standard equation
will be used to determine the output steam temperature and enthalpy with Q as
the turbine power (5.5Kw), m as mass flow rate (0.0275 kg/s), H as change in
enthalpy (200KJ/kg) and H1 as inlet enthalpy at inlet temperature of 400OC
(2899.2 KJ/Kg) (Balje, 1981).
1.0.Results
and Discussion
4.1.
Pretreatment of Palm oil Biomass Wastes (PBWs)
Pretreatment of
the biomass wastes with acid and alkaline was necessary to reduce moisture
content, increase energy density and improve combustion efficiency.
Pretreatment allows the increase of surface area and porosity of the biomass
wastes, thereby optimizing a better air-fuel mixing and enhancing complete
combustion (Misson et al.,
2009).
4.2.Composition and Blend Ratios of
various Palm Biomass Wastes
In
this study, the Empirical formula for palm fruits biomass wastes which includes
EPFB, PMF, PKS and PFC was generally represented as CxHyOzNqSp where x,y,z,q and p,are the specific composition of the
various wastes.
Specifically,
C; 12x = 2.231. Therefore, x = 2.231/12 = 0.186
H; 1y = 0.2544. Therefore, y = 0.2544/1 = 0.254
O; 16z = 2.1115.
Therefore, z= 2.1115/16 = 0.132
N; 14q = 0.0342. Therefore, q= 0.0342/14 = 0.002
S; 32p = 0.011. Therefore, p =
0.011/32 = 0.0003
Table
1: Composition of Palm Biomass Wastes (PBWs) Parameters Prior to Analysis
|
Components |
Palm Biomass Wastes
(PBWs)%/Wt |
|||||
|
EPFB (30%) |
PMF (20%) |
PKS (40%) |
PFC (10%)
|
Total (in % Blend Ratios) |
||
|
Prior to Treatment |
After Treatment |
|||||
|
Fiber |
68.51 ±1.15 |
72.73±0.70 |
45.20±1.00 |
35.50±1.50 |
58.85
± 0.30 |
52.40
± 0.50 |
|
Moisture |
65.0 ±2.00 |
38.50±1.55 |
15.50±1.40 |
12.50±1.70 |
35.00
± 1.50 |
12.80
± 1.70 |
|
Ash
Content |
8.65 ±1.08 |
12.22±1.30 |
9.00±1.15 |
9.50±1.25 |
39.37
±1.15 |
42.50 ± 2.00 |
|
Volatility |
84.20 ±1.50 |
78.35±1.50 |
62.00±1.45 |
64.40±1.65 |
72.11
±2.50 |
58.50
± 1.80 |
|
Carbon |
65.60 ±1.20 |
64.43±1.25 |
47.50±1.50 |
45.60±0.07 |
12.80
±
1.20 |
13.60 ± 0.50 |
|
Hydrogen |
7.90 ±0.06 |
7.52±1.00 |
5.22±0.07 |
4.80±1.30 |
6.43
± 1.75 |
5.80
± 1.60 |
|
Oxygen |
66.30 ±1.60 |
52.28±1.75 |
42.37±1.25 |
50.20±0.64 |
52.32
± 2.20 |
50.55
± 1.80 |
|
Nitrogen |
1.20 ±1.40 |
0.77±1.10 |
0.80±1.20 |
0.65±1.88 |
0.90
± 0.50 |
0.85
± 0.70 |
|
Sulphur |
0.10 ±0.14 |
0.90±1.30 |
0.05±1.18 |
0.05±1.25 |
0.24
± 1.45 |
0.20
± 2.00 |
*EPFB
Empty palm fruit Bunches; PMF Palm Mesocarp Fiber; PKS Palm Kernel Shell; PFC
Palm Fruit Chaff
Table 1 shows the compositional characteristics of
four common palm biomass wastes— Empty Palm Fruit Bunches (EPFB), Palm Mesocarp
Fiber (PMF), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS), and Palm Fruit Chaff (PFC) as well as
their blended mixture before and after a treatment process. The blend ratios
(30% EPFB, 20% PMF, 40% PKS, 10% PFC) are typical for a combined feedstock in
biomass conversion systems.
Variability
in Individual Feedstock
The four palm biomass wastes differ markedly in
composition as seen in table 1.
Prior to treatment and blending, EPFB had very high
moisture (65%) and volatility (84.2%). This was due to its freshness and not
easily ignitable but requires extensive drying. The PMF obtained moderate
moisture content (38.5%), high fiber (72.7%) and high ash (12.2%). This
contributed to the blend’s ash burden within the combustion chamber. PKS had a
lower moisture content (15.5%), moderate carbon (47.5%) more stable. This was
appropriate and redused the ash burden arising from the PMF mix for fuel
efficacy. The PFC had the lowest fiber content (35.5%) and carbon (45.6%) with
relatively low moisture content, though with less energy potentials was
adequate for the biomass blend.
Proximate
Analysis Parameters
The proximate analysis (moisture, ash, volatility,
fiber) provides insight into the combustion and pyrolysis behaviour of the
biomass.
Moisture
Content
The high
initial moisture (35%) is typical for fresh palm wastes, especially EPFB (65%).
After treatment, moisture drops to 12.8%, which is favourable for
thermochemical conversion (higher calorific value, lower ignition delay). This
suggests that the treatment effectively dries the feedstock.
Ash
Content
The increase in ash from ~39% to ~42.5% is likely a
concentration effect as moisture and some volatiles are removed, the inorganic
fraction becomes proportionally larger. High ash is a known challenge for palm
biomass; it can cause slagging and fouling in combustion systems. The blend’s
ash is particularly elevated due to the high contribution of PMF (12.22%) and
the overall mix.
Volatility
Reduction from 72% to 58.5% indicates that a portion
of the volatile matter was driven off during treatment (e.g., mild pyrolysis or
torrefaction). This improves fuel stability and energy density but may reduce
reactivity.
Fiber
The decrease in fiber content suggests partial
degradation of lignocellulosic structures. This could be due to thermal
decomposition of hemicellulose and cellulose during treatment.
Ultimate
Analysis Parameters (C, H, O, N, S)
Elemental
composition affects heating value, emissions, and suitability for biochemical
conversion.
Table 1 show that there was slight increase in carbon
(from 12.8% to 13.6%). This may probably be explained by the loss of
hydrogen-rich moisture and volatiles, leading to a relative enrichment of
carbon. The hydrogen decrease corresponds to the loss of water and light
hydrocarbons. There was a slight drop in oxygen (52.3% to 50.6%). This is
consistent with the removal of oxygen-containing functional groups (e.g., –OH
in water, carboxylic acids) during treatment. Lower O/C ratio improves the
heating value. Nitrogen and sulphur remained very low (<1%), which is
beneficial for reducing NOₓ and SOₓ emissions. The changes are negligible
within experimental error. The high proportion of PKS (40%) and EPFB (30%)
drives the overall characteristics of the palm biomass wastes and averages
these properties.
Energy Generated from the Palm biomass wastes (PBWs)
The energy
generated from the combustion of 855 kg of palm biomass waste is described below by applying the following
parameters:
Calorific value (Cv) = 19500KJ/Kg
Combustion Efficiency = (η Combustion) 90%
Mass of Palm Biomass Wastes = 855 kg
Cycle Efficiency (η cycle) = 55% η
Steam Turbine Efficiency (η turbine) =
95%
Boiler heat transfer efficiency (η heat
transfer) = 90%
Power =
Power = 
1,960.06KW
= 1.91MW
Combustion of Methane gas
CH4 + O2
CO2 + H2O +
Energy
Heat released by
methane gas
Heat released Q = Calorific
value x Combustion rate
Calorific value of methane gas =
55178 KJ/Kg
Mass of Methane gas = 855Kg
Q = 55178.2 X 855
= 47177361KJ
= 47.18GJ.
Power produced
from burning 855 kg of methane gas is calculated using equation 7 when the same
parameters for the palm biomass wastes were considered.
Where
Calorific value (Cv) = 53178.2 KJ/Kg
Combustion Efficiency = (η Combustion) 95%
Mass of fuel (methane) = 855 kg
Cycle Efficiency (η cycle) = 55% η
Steam Turbine Efficiency (η turbine)
= 90%
Boiler heat transfer efficiency (η
heat transfer) = 90%
Power =
Power = 
= 4,74208.67KW
= 4.74MW
Fig
1: Comparison of Chemical Composition of Raw PBWs versus its Pellets
Figure 1 presents a direct comparison between the raw
palm biomass wastes (PBWs) blend and its pelletized form. Pelletization is a
common densification process that improves handling, storage, and combustion
characteristics of biomass. The changes observed in the parameters reflect both
physical and chemical transformations induced by the pelletization process.
The proximate analysis showed an accrued a moisture
content of 35.00 ± 1.50 and 11.80 ± 1.70 for the raw PBWs blend and that of its
corresponding pellets respectively. This significant 66% reduction, of the
moisture, improved the storage stability (less microbial growth) and combustion
efficiency (higher calorific value) of the biomass wastes. There was a relative
percentage decrease (19%) in volatility of the raw PBWs blend to that of its
pellets. Loss of volatile matter during drying/compression (e.g., light organic
compounds) tends to lower ignition rate but gives a more stable combustion.
There was a slight percentage increase of 6.3 observed in the fixed carbon of
the raw PBWs to that of its pellets. Fixed carbon enriches as volatile matter
and moisture are removed. Higher fixed carbon increases energy density and char
yield. Fiber (%) remained nearly unchanged (52.40 to 52.20), indicating that
the fibrous structure is retained physically, though some mechanical breakdown
may occur. The slight decrease is within experimental error.
The increase from 4,150 to 4,500 kcal/kg of the
calorific value is expected due to moisture reduction (water removal adds ~600
kcal/kg for every 10% moisture lost) and slight fixed carbon enrichment. The
higher calorific value makes pellets more attractive as fuel. Larger standard deviation after pelletization
(±1.70 vs ±0.80), could possibly be due to inhomogeneous densification or
moisture distribution within pellets.
Physical change in diameter shows that the raw PBWs
blend consists of heterogeneous, irregularly shaped particles (fiber, shells,
and chaff), causing poor flow ability and bulk density issues.
Pelletization resulted in uniform cylindrical pellets
(8.5 mm diameter), which improved handling, reduced dust, and allowed for
standardized feeding into the automated combustion chamber. The uniform size
also ensured consistent combustion rates and reduced bridging in the hoppers.
Fig 2: Energy Output of CH4 gas, PBWs
pellets and Raw PBWs on the same Fuel Mass per Hour
Figure 2 shows the relationship
between the mass
of fuel used and the corresponding power output
generated from methane gas (CH₄)
to that of raw palm biomass wastes (PBWs) and its pellets. From the analysis,
it is evident that increasing the mass of fuel leads to an increase in power
output for methane gas, raw PBWs and its pellets. However, methane gas
consistently produces significantly higher power output than PBWs at all fuel
masses considered.
At a fuel mass of 155 kg/Hr,
methane gas generated 637.7 MW, whereas PBWs produced only 295.45 MW. This
indicates that methane gas produced more than twice the power output of PBWs at
the lowest fuel quantity. As the fuel mass increased to 855 kg, the power
output of methane gas rose sharply to 4480.6 MW, while PBWs increased to
1960.06 MW. This trend confirms that methane gas has a higher energy conversion
capability and calorific value than palm biomass wastes.
Similar works carried out by Olisa
and Kotlngo using 840 kg of empty fruit bunch alone obtained 1.5 MW in firing a
steam boiler
The analysis further reveals that
the increase in methane gas power output is more pronounced compared to PBWs
and its corresponding pellets. For example, between 155 kg and 855 kg, methane
gas power output increased by approximately 3842.9 MW, whereas PBWs increased
by about 1664.61 MW. This suggests that methane gas is more efficient in
converting fuel mass into usable energy.
Figure 3b that the
relationship between fuel mass and power output appears approximately
proportional for the three energy sources. As the quantity of fuel increases,
the generated power also increases steadily. However, CH4 gas
demonstrates a steeper growth rate, indicating superior combustion efficiency
and energy density.
The comparatively
lower power output from raw PBWs may be attributed to factors such as: lower
calorific value of biomass materials; moisture content in palm biomass
residues; incomplete combustion and lower thermal efficiency during energy
conversion.
Despite the lower power output, PBWs remain an important
renewable energy resource because they are environmentally friendly, readily
available in palm-producing regions, and help
reduce agricultural waste disposal problems. Methane gas, on the other hand,
provides higher energy efficiency and greater power generation potential,
making it more suitable for large-scale power production.
Favourable comparison with Nigerian
National Grid
Nigeria’s grid generation capacity is approximately
4–5 GW (peak), but actual dispatch often ranges 2.5–4 GW due to gas shortages
and transmission constraints. Average national electricity consumption is
roughly 2.8–3.5 GW (annual load factor ~60–70%). From the analysis, Raw palm
biomass wastes (PBWs) at the highest tested mass (855 kg h⁻¹) produce ~1.96 GW,
which is about 65% of Nigeria’s average grid consumption and ~40–50% of peak
demand. PBW pellets reach 2.46 GW (82% of average consumption). These are
substantial contributions. 1.96 GW from raw PBWs is comparable to a large gas‑fired plant (e.g., Egbin
Thermal Power Station ~1.3 GW). In general, harnessing these wastes could
displace a large share of grid power, though practical scalability and fuel
logistics require further analysis.
Conclusion
Harnessing palm oil biomass wastes in Nigeria
represents a massive untapped energy reservoir. Currently, many mills in the
regions utilize these wastes for internal operations, but the potential for
electricity generation is significant. Nigeria's production of palm oil
generates millions of tonnes of waste annually.
The compositional
characteristics of four common palm biomass wastes— Empty Palm Fruit Bunches
(EPFB), Palm Mesocarp Fiber (PMF), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS), and current Palm
Fruit Chaff (PFC) as well as their raw blended mixture and pellets were
analyzed before and after a treatment process.
Calorific values of the
three fuel type were recorded to be 5.178 ±0.50, 4.500 ±0.70 and 4.150 ±0.80
kcal/mol for CH4 gas, PBWs pellets and Raw PBWs blend respectively
which subsequently generated energy output of 4742.6, 2455.20 and 1960.06 MW respectively.
In general, power output
increased as the fuel mass increased for the three types of fuel used for the
study, indicating that greater fuel availability enhanced energy generation
capacity. However, Methane consistently had the highest power output at every
fuel mass while the PBWs Pellets outperform raw PBWs at every data point,
confirming that densification/processing improves combustion characteristics as
well as electricity generation.
All three fuels types exhibited a linear correlation
between fuel mass and power output, indicating stable conversion processes
within the tested range.
Recommendations
Based on the comparative
performance data (methane > pellets > raw PBWs) and typical barriers in
the Nigerian energy sector, the following recommendations are made:
1.
Government and stake holders should deploy small-to-medium scale
steel turbines at the point of processing to enable the country decentralize its power grid and thus provide
a reliable renewable energy for rural communities while solving a major
environmental waste problem.
2.
Mobile or community-scale pellet mills
located near palm oil mills should be created and subsidized.
This
will reduce transportation costs for bulky raw wastes such as empty fruit
bunches, fibers, shells and ensures a consistent, standardized fuel feedstock.
In line with this, stakeholders should partner with the Nigerian Palm Oil
Association and State governments to establish pilot pellet hubs in
palm-oil-rich states (Edo, Delta, Akwa Ibom).
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